Tuesday, April 30, 2019

Black Images In Film Movie Review Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Black Images In Film - impression Review ExampleThe film deconstructs the substitution class of the foreboding(a) man and the idea of the slave that is the added burden of his image (that Griffith in reality justifies using Woodrow Wilsons writings in A History of the the Statesn People.La ltima cena reveals the Calibn group (the Hegelian master-slave ideology), colonizer and colonized binary, which is in the first place influenced by the Cuban poet Roberto Fernndez Retamars 1971 essay on Cuban subversive artistics, entitled Caliban. Apart from that Caliban is an important symbol for postcolonial Cuba, since it gives a voice to the slave and allows an inversion of gaze where the another(prenominal) finally speaks in his own language, desperately usurped by the master. Caliban was the name of the half-man half-fish in Shakespeares Tempest, a shoot metaphor of the anthropological cannibals, that served as a landmark discourse for justifying the colonial rule which aimed at c ivilizing the savages, mainly the African Americans or the blacks. Thus the Calibn theme is of particular historical interest within the Latin America cinema of the seventies, where it was seen as symbolic of colonialism and enslavement.3 However, unlike The Seventh Seal, which looks Christian on the surface but is actually existential, The Last Supper has an existential approach for grappling at Christian salvation through an anatomy of slavery. Thus, when an tyro and pious aristocrat (a White) attempts to celebrate the Last Supper with his slaves, the hideous relationship between the class system and the religious establishment is made to question. The film explore and adopt an experimental approach to the problem of historical truth. Aleas black comedy, La ultima cena achieve an allegorical quality which becomes a distinctive trait of the entire movement the talent to speak of subjects on more than one level at the same time, of the present while lecture of the past, for examp le, or of politics while talking of religion. At the same time, the exploration of these themes quickly left the aesthetic of neorealism behind, as directors and cinematographers sought to create a visual style, which matched the legendary qualities of the subject matter. The Last Supper is a caustic, anti-religious tender satire and role-playing gets drunkenly out of hand, the result is a slave rebellion -- and it is time for property self-possession to reassert its place of precedence in the scheme of things. During Holy Week at the end of the eighteenth century, a count visits his Havana sugar mill on a day a slave has run away. The count tells his cruel overseer, gull Manuel, to pick 12 slaves who will be guests at the counts table. Don Manuel objects, but to no avail. The twelfth guest is the recaptured runaway. During the dinner, using religious analogies, the count lectures his guests on the perfect ecstasy possible in slavery. They in turn tell stories and make requests. He promises no work on Good Friday, but he leaves early that morning and Don Manuel rousts the slaves for a long day sensitive cane. They rebel. Which side will the count take D. W. Griffiths The Birth of a Nation (1915) has been defined as a domestic melodrama a landmark epic that originally was originally called The Clansman.. What makes the

Monday, April 29, 2019

What were the reason for, waht are the clained advantages of, the Essay

What were the reason for, waht atomic number 18 the clained advantages of, the adoption in Australia of international financial reporting standards(IFRSs) - canvass ExampleThis will be a more adaptive way of comparing financial tuition not just within Australian companies but the Australian corporate sector with the international corporations. on with comparison, it will also make the allocation of uppercase across borders more efficient. Furthermore, different arrays of national standards which are a lot different in their functionality, on its own places a high cost on capital marts. a constant portion of these costs is directly put on the companies who have to work the multiple standards to raise capital in different markets. the IRFS bears the answer to provide relief for both corporate governance and the stakeholders (Antill & Lee, 2005).In todays global world, economic relations with other countries are increase at a a good deal faster rate than before and especially fo r Australia where foreign exchange is much more than the GDP. This has resulted in a substantial increase in the number of different multinational corporations step forward of Australia, and many of these companies have their focus on Asian markets among others for their revenues. Furthermore, as these economies themselves develop this makes it even more germane(predicate) for IFRS to be adopted in Australia (Nobes, 2006).In these global markets, the IFRS gives investors a more clear view of the companies as barriers to international financial investment have fallen in markets around the world. These investors can now trade securities of these Australian multinational companies without any constraints. Moreover, these investors may be pretty much responsible for trading of almost half of all the shares of the companies which are floated in the Australian market (Nobes, 2006).As cross-border financial investment increases, capital markets become more dependent on each other. This means that shocks felt in one market reverberate around

Sunday, April 28, 2019

Bacterial transformation and gene expression Lab Report

Bacterial version and gene human face - Lab Report ExampleThis study looks into desoxyribonucleic acid as the blueprint of our life. Life without these molecules is not possible. deoxyribonucleic acid are transcribed into RNA and translated into proteins. These proteins are important for the biochemical functions of the cell. In bacteria, apart from deoxyribonucleic acid, there is extrachromosomal DNA called as plasmids. They are double stranded DNA which forms circles with size ranging from 1 kb to 200kb (kilobase). Plasmids are precise advantageous for the transmittable engineering. Plasmids code for many antibiotic regions and they have the ability to accept the gene of interest. The transformation of our gene of interest into the plasmid is called recombination and the bacteria are called recombinant bacteria. Thus plasmids can be utilize as cloning vehicles or vectors. These plasmids are not essential for the natural selection of bacteria, but in some instances, for surv ival in the different environments, they can provide some extra advantage. The best example is the survival of the bacterial cell in the presence of an antibiotic drug. Antibiotic resistant bacteria like Escherichia coli are used for the transformation of the gene of interest into the host cell. Transformation and cloning are the two important genetic engineering tools used for the expression of the foreign gene of interest in the given bacterial cell. ternion conditions required for the transformation are 1) the host into which the foreign DNA is inserted, 2) a method for the insertion of the DNA into the host cell, and 3) methods to identify the transformed cells and select them.

Saturday, April 27, 2019

International Environment law Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

International Environment law - Essay ExampleIn order to fully understand the WTOs legal framework and its policies and practices with respect to environmental protection it is prototypic necessary to briefly examine a history and discipline of the WTO. By understanding the history and development of the WTO it will be easier to predict the possible outcomes for Agricola in the dispute filed by Machina. The WTO grew out of The International cope Organization (ITO) which was an attempt to create and cultivate a structured multilateral trade agreements regime in the aftermath of the Second World War.1 Under the auspices of the ITO the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) was employ in 1947. Its primary purpose was to serve as an interim multilateral trade agreement until such(prenominal) time as the WTO could be implemented and ratified.2 GATT was entirely reliant upon the relative strengths of the participating share states and their individual ability to negotiate mult ilateral trade agreements.3 The result was a commercial and political culture characterized by inequality of bargaining position since developing and least developed nations were unable to participate on the same(p) level as developed countries under the GATT regime.4Following a series of negotiations betwixt world leadership referred to as the Uruguay Rounds, GATT was replaced by the WTO and signed in 1995.5 The new WTO made a concrete effort to assign member states to a series of new obligations designed to facilitate free and unrestricted trade between member states emphasising the need and desire to accommodate less developed countries.6 By virtue of the WTOs treaties and agreements member states are required to extend indiscriminate treatment of all member states with respect to cross spring trade agreements.7 In other words the WTO has as its primary aim the free movement of goods and go from one member state to another.8Focused primarily on

Friday, April 26, 2019

Human Rights in Saudi Arabia Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

benignant Rights in Saudi Arabia - Essay ExamplePolitical prisoners arrested and killed during a demonstration with no charge The ruling party, which consist of the al-Saud family, tolerate no forms of political and the dissents argon raspingly treated beyond the human rights standards. The government deploys the tactic of arbitrary detention without charge or runnel thus amounting to gross violation of human rights. The prisoners are similarly subjected to staging sham trials lacking the negligible requirements for any judicial process. The government supporters who have voiced their mild allegations of the ruling class have also found their way into kangaroo courts or subjected to chains without trial.3 The political prison is full beyond capacity since its intercommunicate to hold about 10, 000 prisoners yet it now has over three times this number. This number of political prisoners is passing high considering it is a country of about 27 million people close of which are two-year-old adults. The crisis of imprisonment keeps on getting worse at the dawn of each day since more than and more people are arrested and imprisoned on unclear grounds. The prisoners are made to live and endure in critical inhumane conditions with slight medical care and lack of other basic needs mandatory in standard prisons.4 This makes the prisoners suffer as they serve their imprisonment some of which die in the play of their sentences. The family members of the prisoners are rarely awarded an opportunity to visit their imprisoned relatives in those dilapidated conditions and thus are less aware of the jubilations faced by their people.5 The government of Saudi Arabia has shown little interest in helping the prisoners, most of which who are because of a political challenge against their dynasties. The government feels that this is the best means of treating the prisoners to remove any liberal of political uprising, which may challenge their authority and leadership. The government conditions are so severe that even the released prisoners are still pressured with travel bans and other forms of threats to avoid. Those who fight for human rights are also subjected to employment bans, teaching bans, and imprisonment of other family members and close relatives so that they stop their calls for change in the autocratic leadership witnessed in Saudi Arabia. 6 Women Rights This is the country where women lead stranger sustenance than any other part of the word. In Saudi Arabia, women are treated like second-class citizens, as they are not al measlyed all the privileges enjoyed by women.7 Human rights in Saudi Arabia is amongst the most talked about yet the murkiest topic in the country due to low regards women are held. The challenges facing women in Saudi Arabia range from political to legal disenfranchisement along with curtailed liberties that make their life extremely uncomfortable in their daily lives.

Thursday, April 25, 2019

Research on Project Quality Management in China Paper

On take c ar Quality Management in China - Research Paper ExampleThe recent decades have seen most(prenominal) countries implement new techniques that are geared towards producing the outmatch results out of an initiated project however small it whitethorn be. Most industrialized and urbanized nations, China inclusive, have recently concentrated on timber return plans, ensuring appropriate standards in the prize of their products and services in order to fit in the global economics. Generally, quality way is the process by which an implementer of a particular project ensures that the value of the project at excrete is able to satisfy his clientele in the vanquish authority possible. Quality is the characteristic of an item impact the required standards by the customers or a producer or the government, as tumesce as giving the producer a value of business sustainability and increased performance (Cleland and Gareis, 2006). Techniques of project quality solicitude that ar e desirable are those that make sure that the deliverables of a particular project are able to pucker the expectations of customers or even go beyond these expectations. Therefore, monitoring a project in the best way possible is considered ample, since errors and chances of project misinterpretations are duly eradicated. Additionally, standards of quality are deemed vital in the implementation of whatsoever project, and the meeting of such standards is made possible through the application of suitable plans to manage a project. cookery of a project is important because it helps ensure the effectiveness of the factors that influence project management as well as the activities that are conducted by the project stakeholders. Quality is at the same time acquired through a certain series of processes that are continually handled until the best result is acquired. Thus, no project incepts at its best level, but all start at a poor level tending towards the best. More over, it is all important(p) that project implementation team communicate appropriately with the project stakeholders in order to lay the best foundation for quality improvement that is continuous. Thus, when planning the budget for every project, it is crucial that quality be spew into consideration. It is always good to emphasize on quality and not quantity for a stakeholder willing to concede the best and not only to gain (Cleland and Gareis, 2006). This paper is aimed at investigating into the project quality management in China, being one of the most industrialized countries. Additionally, it will seek to establish the policies, quality control, as well as the techniques that are duly applied in the country. It is also important to come up with a definite reason as to why Chinese products, despite being of low quality are prevalent in the world. More over, it will seek to investigate into project management in china, in regard to the aspect of globalization. Furthermore, it is geared toward s providing an insight on quality standards in regard to the management of quality by Chinese

Wednesday, April 24, 2019

Argument, Concession and Refutation (dp5) Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Argument, Concession and Refutation (dp5) - Essay ExampleIn order to avoid overrule arguments from the opposing side, the source should counter the points given by the opposition. The standard out(p)line for any refutation split should contain the introduction of the opposing argument, acknowledgement of valid points of the opposition and its counter and finally the conclusion which gives a summary of why the counter argument is not a sufficient solution.For a source to grasp the aspect of effectiveness in passing the information while changing the mind of the audience, the writing should be audience-centered and not writer-centered by considering their needs in addition to which argument best suits which audience. In the academic context, the writer should state both the claim and evidence of their position without assuming that the audience is clairvoyant (n.a, 7). Most importantly, the writer should clear a purpose as to what and why they want to communicate.It is of essenc e for every writer to have such information at their fingertips in order to be efficient and effective. Having learnt these antithetical aspects of drawing out an argument, I have discovered how to give a stronger argument and how to put the same across to different audiences (n.a, 11). I have also understood the art of conceding while at the same beat supporting my position which is very useful in the accomplishment of academic

Tuesday, April 23, 2019

Information Warfare & Cyberterrorism Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Information Warfare & Cyberterrorism - Case Study ExampleAccording to Hollis (2008), international cyber terrorism has made digital form of storage of information become an insignificant advancement. In this paper, three major(ip) cyberterrorism cases that have occurred around the globe will be reviewed. In the three cases, the victims, the assaulters and the motives behind the polish ups will be highlighted.In this case the victim was Estonia. study organizations in Estonia including the government were affected by this particular attack. Major websites in the government were disabled. Financial institutions in Estonia were also affected as their websites were jammed with foreign users (Traynor, 2007).The aggressor in this case was Russia. However, Russia did not take responsibility for the attack, but the victims claimed the attacks were traced back to Russia. Analysts also argued the bitter policy-making rivalry between Russia and Estonia was enough to link Russia to this part icular attack. NATO investigated the issue and it was roused of double standards since they refused to immediately accuse Russia of the attacks (Traynor, 2007).Major websites in the government were hacked and they were accessible to many foreign people. Addition everyy, there was a viral attack which disabled many government websites which contained crucial information. To curb the cyber attacks, the government of Estonia and all the affected companies disabled all the affected websites. Additionally, the government disabled all foreign access to the countrys websites. It ensured that only municipal subscribers could view these websites.The victim in this case was Georgia. The county was having political confrontations with Russia, which lasted for many years. After a truce conformity was signed to stop military war between the two nations, the war shifted to cyber attacks. The attacks were politically instigated as Russia was directly blamed for the attacks. Unlike

Monday, April 22, 2019

The social and political structure of the Safavid Empire Essay

The social and political structure of the Safavid Empire - Essay ExampleThe article analyses the differences and similarities between the devil early empires. Among the most evident similarities included their cultures, the author portrays cultural similarities in the attire of the people from the twain early societies. Firstly, both were empires therefore had definite prides they wished to safeguard. The two societies built houses in similar structures and designs and even garb the same region, the expansive Middle East. The two societies thus often interacted done various means including war since they were neighbors. In one of such wars, the Ottoman won thus gaining greater influence over the Safavid. The victory earned the Ottoman Empire numerous commercial rights to trade with other neighboring communities as it curb the volatility in the region for some time. Among other additional similarities in the two empires included the affinity in faith, both the empires ascribe d to the Islamic faith thus had similar religious structures, which also influenced the leadership of both the societies as the religious leaders had influence in the governance of the Islamic societies. The history of the life and accomplishments of Mehed the guerrilla The royal history of Mehed the conqueror begins with the return of his father, Sultan Murad to the throne. By abducing the throne, Murad earned his son Mehed the throne through inheritance thus paving the way for the life and success of one of the greatest conquerors of the time. Mehed ascended into power with the demolition of his father on 18 February 1451. As a legitimate ruler, Mehed could now formulate and implement his possess policies. Among his fundamental fantasies was conquering Istanbul. He therefore invested a lot of time and resources in planning his sexual inversion and conquest of the region that would earn him exclusive commercial rights and influence. He therefore constructed the fortress of Boga z-Kesen, which would facilitate the plan of attack on Istanbul. He thereafter invaded and conquered Istanbul successfully thus earning the control of the commercial hub and ordered its reconstruction as part of his new territory. The successful inversion of Istanbul motivated the empire into other successive inversions including the capture of Enoz, Tasoz and Serbia thus making Mehed one of the greatest conquerors. The poetry of Shah Ismali the first Shah Ismali possessed poetic talent, which he utilized in the composition of numerous verses most of which are stored in museums in Britain. As an early poet, the Shah wrote in the homegrown divan language, a language spoken in the southern Turkey. He wrote poems exclusively on Turkey. He received great inspiration from his friend and colleague Sultan Selim who on the other wrote exclusively on Persia. His works just as any other contemporary poetry covered such features of the social club as culture, politics and the

Seamus Heaney Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Seamus Heaney - Assignment ExampleHowever, although these themes contextually appear to be poets major thematic concerns yet these themes are as well as a reflection of prevalent human behavior and interests. Both the poems Follower and Digging take the readers on a journey down(p) the memory lane where the poet is sight to be recalling two incidents of joy and pride from his pasts regarding his father and grandfather. The Follower depicts a tale of a young child who idealizes his father and his profession i.e. farming and reflects on the childs feelings about his future when he will in like manner get a chance to walk in his fathers footsteps and will be able to work on his beloved lands. The poem also deals with an interesting phenomenon of life i.e. life comes in full circle and evolution under the context that when a child is young he idealizes his father as he sees him at a high base where he can never expect himself to reach that point. Yet as he grows up at last he out shines his fathers glory and succeeds his father and then his father is the one who looks up to his give-and-takes success.However, he also hints upon the changing times where he thinks that his pen is his weapon to succeed in life although he is not ashamed of his roots, in fact, he still finds it delightful to work on the lands along with using the pen as a tool for a better future. Self-identity of a psyche is the sole constituent that makes up a personality of a human being because it is a induction against an individuals individuality and an independent existence as it forms the foundation of a mans ego and self-esteem. Subsequently, it is a natural human instinct to struggle in life in distinguish to retain his independence and never let another individual question his identity for this reason each individual feels pride over his roots as his heritage also provides him self-confidence. Hence Heaney is also observed to be extensively incorporating the theme of identity in both the poems Followers and Digging which reflects on the Poets feeling regarding his life history. As Kenneally (1995) also states, the cabalistic authority of poetry has its analogue in the mystical authority of a particular conception of Ireland, and it is no accident that one of the terms which discussion of Heaneys poetry and discussion of Irish cultural Politics have in common is Identity (p.180). Kenneally also reiterates that Heaneys poems are, carefully structured to give the notion of identity pride of place in Heaneys critical orientation (p.180). The readers while reading the poem since the importance that the poet puts in the profession of his ancestors as he believes that farming is his actual identity although he might seek other means to succeed in life. As the poet also states in Digging,

Sunday, April 21, 2019

Questions on One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest (Penguin Classics Deluxe Assignment

Questions on iodin Flew Over the Cuckoos Nest (Penguin Classics Deluxe Edition) (Penguin Classics) - Assignment ExampleMcMurphy is rebellious as well due to his counterplay to the rules of the nurse.The mental screen engrosses inmates that are under the directives of the Big Nurse. She imposes rules that sought to govern the inhabitants of the cellblock. The rules regulated and dictated on the conduct of the inhabitants of the mental ward. According to McMurphy, these rules were oppressive to the inhabitants of the ward (Kesey, 14). Due to his exuberant nature, he disqualifies the rules and engages the other inhabitants in rebellion. This was besides his smuggling business of wine and women in the ward. These are the key events in the section of the novel. oldtimer Bromden is aware of Murphys attempts. He observes that McMurphy has intentions to revolt against the nurse. His voice formulates the narration of the novel. This is a trustworthy narrator of the events. The events of t he novel mainly take place within the mental ward. Bromden is trustworthy as he is observing of the interactions and events of the characters. He is introverted and communicates purely of his observations within the mental ward (Kesey, 26). He also gives an analogy of his society, which implicates that non-conformists perpetually face adversity and bias.McMurphy is subject to charges for battery and gambling (Kesey, 7). Conviction had not been issued, and he ran to the mental ward to escape the law. This fact in the text presents Murphy as an escapist. He opted to be in the ward to evade conviction. McMurphy is proud of rape as his entitlement (Kesey, 86). Evidently, Murphy is entirely inhumane and he deeply advocates for sorry acts. These quotes inform readers much about McMurphys traits and intentions.I connect much with Nurse Ratched. She has much assist on humanity. Despite of her authoritative nature, she advocates for justice. This is evident when she intends to report McM urphy to Billys mother (Kesey, 102). She could not live on McMurphy raping Billy and taking her

Saturday, April 20, 2019

Teaching strategies and adaptations shown to be effective for teaching Essay

Teaching strategies and adaptations shown to be effective for teach individuals with learning disabilities - Essay ExampleTeaching Strategies for Learning Disabled Students Teaching strategies play a censorious role in improving the learning abilities of learning-disabled children. Those strategies assist the teachers not only in interacting with learning-disabled children but besides in improving learning and cellular inclusion abilities of the children. Some of the most appropriate teaching strategies include perennial reading intervention, evidence based reading schema, computer based teaching strategy, and reading comprehension strategy for the learning-disabled students. In repeated learning reading intervention strategy, repeated reading practices are used to take into account multiple exposures to same words to the disabled children. For students with or at risk for learning disabilities, developing suaveness with reading connected texts remains a formidable challenge (Chard, Ketterlin-Geller, Baker, Doabler, & Apichatabutra, 2009, p. 263-281). Evidence based and reading comprehension strategies are very effective in improving the literacy sills of the children.

Friday, April 19, 2019

Global Managerial Economics Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 1

world(prenominal) Managerial Economics - Essay ExampleThere are guidelines that need to be discussed with respect to circumstance up operations inside Mexico or any member of the NAFTA conglomerate. First, the OECD Declaration on International enthronization and Multinational Enterprise drafted on June 27, 2000 and within the Annex outline the guidelines of multinational enterprises address the general policies in that they should3. Encourage local capacity building through close co-operation with the local community, including business interests, as hygienic as developing the enterprises activities in domestic and exotic markets, consistent with the need for upright commercial practice5. Refrain from seeking or accepting exemptions not contemplated in the statutory or regulatory framework related to environmental, health, safety, labour, taxation, financial incentives, or other issues9. Refrain from discriminatory or corrective action against employees who make bona fide repor ts to management or, as appropriate, to the competent public authorities, on practices that contravene the law, the Guidelines or the enterprises policies at bottom other large automotive companies, using the example of General Motors, the importance of operating succinctly with foreign countries in an effort to work within the confines of NAFTA and OECD including the applicable corporate social responsibilities. For instance, General Motors Mexico integrated Social Responsibility information includesGM Mexico operations now recycle 94.5% of their hazardous and non-hazardous wastes. As a result of this recycling rate, all Mexico facilities eliminated the disposal of hazardous wastes in landfill beginning in August 2003. crazy waste is now recycled or used as alternative fuel. Since 2000, land filled waste has been decreased from 7,369 metric tons to 444 metric tons during 2003. The financial savings from this are calculated to be $990,173. to boot Non-Hazardous Waste landfill has been

Thursday, April 18, 2019

Tucson 4th ave streetcar Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Tucson 4th ave streetcar - Essay ExampleSo far, the development plan is underway and the streetcar is soon getting an operation, however, the project draws a subjugate of criticisms honest from its planning to the effects of the finished rail lane in the urban center. Efficiency in transportation reduces time bewildered in traffic thereby making the economy more efficient. For a long time the city of Tucson has merely relied on the efficient road network to provide connections to all the places within the city. The city has a dedicated metropolitan bus service coupled with a number of private taxi operate that have by far ensured efficient transportation in and out of the city. However, the city just as any former(a) part of the country is expanding. The city continues to attract more investors, which implies that more people assume into the city all of who require effective means of transportation. This implies that while the sizes and the conditions of the road network have r emained idempotent for quite some time, the demand has significantly increased resulting in both congestion in the earth places such as bus stations and traffic jams on the roads and major highways. The city thence needed some more radical means of transportation, one which could transport a large number of people and do so efficiently fast. This could drastically reduce congestion and save time. Expansion of the road networks seemed more expensive and had more severe economic ramifications, the rest of the world and even New York among other cities in the United States have all tried and tested the efficiency of streetcars a feature, which prompted the council government of Tucson to go for one. However, the cost constructing one would overburden the taxpayers, which is the key source of revenue for the council government. The project, which anticipate to complete in June 2013, had an initial budget of one one C and fifty trillion dollars but that has since increased to two hundred million owing to readjustments on a number of construction features (Golem and Janet 33). The project draws its funding from the voter approved regional transportation authority and federal agents both of which rely on taxes. Once completed the project is evaluate to relieve the public transport system and revamp business in the citys major business districts. The project has so far served as one of the highest employers in the city of Tucson, its construction adjoin alone has caused more than a thousand temporary construction jobs but the streetcar project is expected to create more than two thousand permanent jobs once it gets operational. Additionally, more than twenty construction companies particularize up in the neighborhood to sustain the construction process. More than one thousand five hundred more people will be employed by the Sun Link Tucson Transport caller to sustain the entire transportation process. Furthermore, the electricity powered streetcar promises efficiency, The Sun Link Tucson, which is the company mandated with operating(a) the streetcar, has a success history with managing public transportation and won the Best Transit system in 2005. It is therefore expected that the streetcar project will attain similar efficiency thereby decongesting the city. The affair of the streetcar route passes

Wednesday, April 17, 2019

Criminal Liability Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Criminal Liability - Case Study compositors movementThe collision resulted in the death of a man. Pitwood argued that he had no legal duty to the deceased, but enounce Wright held that he did have one arising from his contract of employment. While R. v. Pitwood is often regarded as a classic case of criminal liability for omission, Wrights actual words leave some room for doubt thusly the pronounce may actu everyy have been seeing liability coming from the circumstance that Pitwood had left the level ford gate open rather than the position that he had not shut the level crossing gate. Thus did the liability come from an action or an inaction It would seem that the former occurred.This was a case of vernacular negligence manslaughter, a crime that is a useful background to the whole subject of criminal liability for omission. In general such manslaughter requires the following elementsDuty is imposed by common law statute. A breach is the failure to do something or doing somet hing incorrectly according to the measurement expected. The causal link is the fact that death has resulted from this failure with no intervening cause speckle gross negligence is the fact that the standard of performance or non-performance is so bad as to make it criminal.How do Jons acts fit into these elements First of all he had a duty to the clients of the gym because he is employed as an instructor. A gym has potentially very dangerous equipment within it - as what happens to Ian shows - and anyone employed by it has a duty of care towards the clients. in that respect is a clear breach of duty in some(prenominal) 1) and 2). The breach in 1) is an example of negligence, while that in 2) moves well beyond even gross negligence into an intentional act that is designed to mischievously hurt or even kill Ian. In this case the omission rises to the point of an act. He possesses both the mens rea and the actus reus for the crime of murder. If Ian had been outright killed by the weights falling onto his chest, Jon could have been charged with murder. However, a difficult arises as to the fact that there is clearly an intervening event which actually leads to the death. While Jon was clearly expecting Ian to be injured, it was not conceivable for him to think that he would be allergic to antibiotics and that the doctor would not notice and give them to him. At the akin time the but for principle is at work. In other words, but for the actions of Jon, Ian would have never been in the hospital in the first place. The intervening event and but for principles would create

Tuesday, April 16, 2019

Stakeholders and Organizations Essay Example for Free

Stakeholders and Organizations EssayStakeholders ar persons or groups that affect or are affected by an geological formation. They fulfill many images within organizations. What is the intimately significant role stakeholders play in an organization? Why? How do stakeholders acting in this role influence the organizations mission, vision, and strategy?The answer to this question depends to a large degree who the stakeholder is and whether it is a market or nonmarket stakeholder (Lawrence Weber, 2011). However, in general, it seems that power and influence go hand-in-hand in terms of the most significant role(s) a stakeholder may potentially play in an organization. These two dynamics form the basis for the level of interest a stakeholder has when seeking to affect the organization. Based on the power, influence, and interest of a stakeholder, Boutelle (2004) went so far as to res publica that, Projects will succeed or fail primarily based on the actions of people who care exuberant to defend or oppose them (para. 19). This statement centers on this theme of power, influence, and interest.Thus, if there is enough generated interest in organizational issues which can exert a strong fervor of power and influence amongst diverse stakeholders, the organizational leaders will take notice and respond accordingly. This is known as the salience of a stakeholder and is a critical component of how they are viewed and defined by an organization (Mitchell, Agle, Wood). A stakeholder who is able to effectively bet on their power and influence can have a profound impact in how that particular organization conducts business on many levels which, in turn, may create some rethinking and reposturing of the mission, vision, and strategy of an organization. It is certainly in the best interest of the organization to build strong relationships with their many stakeholders so as to add nurture to their overall brand and image (Lawrence Weber, 2011).ReferencesBoutell e, J. (2004). Understanding stakeholders for design success. Boxes and Arrows. Retrieved from http//boxesandarrows.com/understanding-organizational-stakeholders-for-design-success/ Lawrence, A. T., Weber, J. (2011). Business and society

Comic Strip Lesson Plan Essay Example for Free

singular Strip Lesson Plan EssayIn this lesson the students leave discuss memories in front of the program that they taste remembering along with their speech they exit present their interpretation of the memory through art. It get out likewise help with their public speaking skills.Objectives* I want the students to learn how to give a piddling intromission in front of the class path.Materials and Technologies (Teacher and student) Teacher notes for lessons. Students testament need fishy strip sheets, pretension pencils, crayons, and markers.Preparation of the room I will put the needed comic strip paper on each students desk. If the students boast any of their induce crayon, color pencils, or markers they will have them on their desk. All of the classroom crayon, color pencils, or markers on a small table in front center of the classroom, along with unnecessary comic strip paper.Artist (s) Roy Lichtenstein comic strip type art Maya Lin demonstration of longstand ing memories in art work.Artmaking medium color pencils, crayons, and markers. (Not all must be used on project if not desired by student.)Instruction (Activities and Procedures) Be very specificOpening Today we will be discussing memories that are special to each of us. We will also be presenting our memories to the class through a short speech, and a comic strip drawing.Attention Grabber (Anticipatory set) For an attention grabber I as the teacher would present my own comic strip, and present a fond memory of my own. This memory would be one that is possibly muggy or funny so I could loosen the class up about presenting their own memories. ten-strike into prior knowledge I can ask if any of them have ever had to speak in front of a crowd. How did they feel? Did they enjoy? Or if they didnt, why?Introduction of artist For Roy Lichtenstein I will tell about his part in Pop Art. I will show them Masterpiece It shows how the comic strips were drawn, and they should resemble there ow n. I will also show Maya Lin, and her Vietnam Memorial. This shows how the memory of someone or an fact is not forgotten if there is art to remember it with.Art making activity The student will have a 4-6 panels strips of paper. On the strip they will draw there recollection of a particular(a) memory. They will do this with color pencils, crayons, and markers. If less or more panels are needed the adductions will be made. Closure We will end the lesson with each student presenting their comic with a short presentation.Interdisciplinary connections This lesson will connect with writing/spelling, because the student will have to have some dialogue/description on the comic. It will also connect with reading, because they will have to read the comic in front of the class as part of their presentation.Accommodating individual differences To meet the needs of all students, I will identify sure that all needed materials are readily available and easily assessable.Feedback How and what m anner will you ply feedback to students. I will give feedback on a comment sheet. On this sheet I will give marks for the students spelling on comic strip, the presentation, and on the drawing themselves.

Monday, April 15, 2019

Importance of Qualifications from an Aviation Managerâۉ„¢s Perspective Essay Example for Free

Importance of Qualifications from an Aviation Managers status EssayAviation is described as aircraft operation with the objective of providing air transportation. Air transportation quarter further be defined as all the civil flying which is performed by air carriers which are certificated and in addition the general breeze. The intentness of air transport can be credited for its zippy role it plays in the todays global world. Management of the aviation industry is complex and thusly it requires one to be qualified so as to be fitting to deal with the challenges that face this industry in our modern world. In addition, the organizational and industrial overview of the air line business is as well a complex task and can not be coverd by a person who does not know qualifications in aviation management. One wishings to flummox qualification in aviation management so as to make the organization to excel in the job market as well as to manage the other employees so as t o improve performance of the organization (Yilmaz, 2008).To be competent to manage the organization effectively, one need to understand on the quality of services that the company should produce so as to attract more customers and withal he should have leadership traits which can change him or her to control the behavior of the employees toward achievement of the organization. He should also be able to control conflicts that may be arising in the organization to make sure that workers are satisfied and thus they are working in a conducive environAviation industry need a management military force who is competent so that he or she can be able evaluate the quantitative methods and applications in the organization. The personnel department should be able to use the scientific management theories so as to support the situations of close qualification by giving sound decisions which can help the organization to grow and even suffer productively (Yilmaz, 2008).He or she should be able to use and apply various concepts in the organization such as the techniques of linear programming, the simulation methods, and the models of inventory control as well as the decision speculation to ensure the organization is running efficiently. Furthermore, there is need for management personnel in the field of aviation to have knowledge about managerial accounting since it is a necessity in management. This will enable him or her to send, accumulate, report and interpret the reading about cost so as to make decision and control the general operation context (Yilmaz, 2008).It will also enable him to utilize and evaluate information supplied to him or her from accounting department. Having knowledge on managerial accounting can enable the management personnel to be able to have accounting tool which can enable him or her in find on the performance of the organization. Aviation management personnel should be also qualified in the non simoleons and governmental accounting to enable him or her to be able to investigate the environment for decision qualification from a place of non-profit entity or public sector.This will enable the personnel to be able to psychoanalyse the consequences and also the regulation impact and the established pronouncements by governmental Accounting standards board, which is the comptroller of US and also the office of the general accounting for the federal. Aviation management personnel should also have knowledge on the financial management so that he can be able to have financial abstract, have measurement on the capital costs, capital management, capital budgeting, valuation and also in determining the analysis of the capital structures.A manager in the aviation industry should be competent and should be advised on the impact of the government as well as the current issues concerning aviation industry. He should be aware of this issue not particularly in the country but at a perspective of the world or globe. Aviat ion management personnel should be able to identify the market segment, to identify the trends that the organization must follow to achieve performance of the organization as well as identifying the developments that need to be introduced in the organization depending on the change in technological know how (Yilmaz, 2008).He should also be aware of the international standards required in the air transport industry so as to be competitive the market. Also being qualified will enable one to understand on the regulations and rules that govern air transport industry and make decisions on how to manage the operation of the organization accord to such rules. The personnel should be able to forecast on the future trends and challenges using the present and the early(prenominal) trends of the industry so as to make the organization to be competitive in the market.There is also need of management aviation personnel to be competent so as to be able to identify the output and demand determin ants in the organization as well as the labor relations. each(prenominal) in all, it is important for one to be qualified in aviation so as to be competent in the field of management in aviation industry. This is because one will be able to control all activities necessary in such industry so as to make it run efficiently and effectively for the growth or profitability of the organization.

Sunday, April 14, 2019

Gobi Fund Essay Example for Free

Gobi Fund EssayWhy is it surd to establish a new fund? Why is track record so important in fund tiptop? The main concern is to convince the indueors to invest their funds in Gobi. Therefore, it is necessary to appeal a rational- surfaced fund. To raise a new fund is not an easy thing to do as everything including the fund structure, team, approach, LP base, and number of capital have to be defined appropriately. The general partners also need to contribute their own money in order to convince the investors to invest together with them. The track record is very important in fund raising because if Gobi has a vertical track record, more investors will be interested to invest in it. Q2. Prep be a SWOT analysis for Gobi Fund II proposal in the stage setting of venture capital fundraising. Gobi operates in an area where there is a lot of pent up contend (IT and digital media). * Gobi drop acts like a bridge for western LPs to invest in Chinese companies. It is difficult to r aise a new fund and if Gobi do not really have a good track record, it will become harder to gain the investors trust in order to raise the new funds. may have the advantage in acquiring a richlyer return from investment in the IT and media market since they already invest in that industry during the early stage. Meaning that they already have the experiences in expend in IT industry, therefore, may not become a problem to earn a high return.What are the keys to raising the second fund and how large should it be? There is no definite answer in this question as they could be changing depends on the situations. The planning horizons may take between 7 to 10 years or maybe longer than that because of a lack of infrastructure and information in the industry. The fund size may be between $100 million to $200 million allowing some $2 million to $5 million for each company. The subsequent funds should be of similar size or larger as the industry grows. Gobi wants the first close at $ 75 million. The key is whether to involve more financial LPs or not. Q4.From the perspective of a potential LP, what are your choices when funding international focus VC funds? Would you fund Gobi? Gobi has never exited from an investment before, and there is high level of risks involved in the training of early stage IT companies as well as huge risks that may impede company development and growth. However, Gobi operates in an area where there is a lot of pent up demand (IT and digital media) and Gobi can acts like a bridge for western LPs to invest in Chinese companies. It may be a good choice to invest in it if it offers a rational return considerate with the level of high risks involved.

Friday, April 12, 2019

Rivers and Tides Essay Example for Free

Rivers and Tides EssayI love frolic. I love playing the game. Most people, especially those belonging to the younger age square bracket may snigger and say golf is very slow paced. Thus, it is a game for adults, since it requires little pushing compared to other sports or games like basketball or football. To those people, I ask you to reconsider. Golf, a very out of date game, has endured time and has proven to be very good to a persons health.While it does not require from its players perfect cardiovascular shape, it does demand that a player possess stamina, flexibility, and coordination, among others. It requires one to stay outside for long periods of time and tread the contours of a golf course for as long as the golf ball does not enter the hole or the cup. For me, however, my love affair with golf is not found on health reasons alone. I am addicted to the positive feeling of being challenged to do give way every time.I take note that no two golf courses are the sa me and I look forward to grabbing the opportunity to conquer each new golf course that I play on. This feeling of exhilaration, excitement and determination drives me to be a better player and a healthier person, for I know that in reality, my antagonists are not those friends whom I intend to defeat every time. Rather, my real competitor is myself, for every time I play my only desire is to do better and outdo myself.

Thursday, April 11, 2019

Reconstituting Local Manufacturing Essay Example for Free

Reconstituting topical anaesthetic Manufacturing screenIs it possible to reconstitute topical anesthetic anesthetic anaesthetic manufacturing and local anesthetic pabulum markets, or has Globalization ultimately made this unimagin qualified?The global economy and marketplace dupe impacted local attention and local manufacturing harshly. With consumers having choices from international companies suitable to import their products, a common market pool for the whole world, it has be grow more trouble near for the local merchants to thrive. Also, many Western companies have established themselves in developing countries, such as McDonalds and Starbucks, with over 31,000 and 18,000 locations operate worldwide respectively. While the influx of multi national corporations has created economic opportunities for many in the communities that they operate within. However, with this prosperity has come the evaporation of local industries. What are some of the factors that could h elp or inhibit the reconstitution of local manufacturing and local food markets.One enormous problem could be the price of doing business and the amount of capital it takes to operate in these markets. These international companies have vast reserves of capital to fund their operations in various countries, pull down buying up local enterprises to reduce their competition. These corporations also spend an enormous amount of cash on advertising. Thus they are able to extend their brand recognition into their new destinations. This is the formula that has also worked strong in American cities. Companies are able to buy out their competition with less expensive end product costs or less overhead. These companies can operate on a smaller margin than the local merchants, who do not have the benefit of mass produced overseas inventory. (Kantor, 2002).On a political scale, globalization has had an effect on the policies put into place by local entities that have an impact on the local m anufacturing and food market. Through the increased surge in international competition, national policies that are aimed at preserving the body structure of local communities and upholding social equality have dwindled and been phased out. Looking to nurture economic growth, many local governments meet inappropriate investments (Held McGrew, 2012). While these conflicting investors infusecurrency into the local economies, the toll they take on the local markets, may not be worth the tradeoff. Could the local governments be taking or mismanaging the funds? possibly the cash infusion could be put to better use to help stabilize or ameliorate the local manufacturing and markets. The case could also be made that the concessions that the local governments make to entice international companies into their rural area make it difficult for or at the least do not address the local manufacturing companies and their concerns. Because of the problems caused for the local manufacturing and food markets, wages and income for the local population also suffers, which influences their buy power. This creates a circular effect because without purchasing power the local community cannot support more local manufacturing. This is certainly a direction in which globalization has hindered local manufacturing and will make it difficult to reconstitute it in the future.Some of the ideals championed by those who prefer globalization will naturally work against the reconstitution of local manufacturing and food markets. For example, the principle of economic advantage unremarkably referred to as the iron law, demands that the best of the countries that initiate competitive strategies is deemed to outdo other competitors from the market. Put simply, if a particular proposition foreign country grows a particular local product more efficiently, then there would be no need to grow the product locally (Davis, 2012).This would force the importation of the product from a foreign coun try which would obviously hamper the ability of local establishments to be able to compete in that market. In fact, some experts think that because of globalization, in the future all food consumed in America will be imported from elsewhere. It has run low financially beneficial to import food instead of growing it locally. This change in economic patterns in response to globalization has hampered the growth of the local industry (Obstfeld, 2000). And functioning in this way will certainly hamper the local manufacturing and food markets to be reestablished and flourish.Another factor of globalization that is swell up documented is that of outsourcing jobs to developing countries with a cheaper labor force. Much ofthis outsourcing has come in the manufacturing sector with many American workers losing their jobs to countries such as China and India. This outsourcing has a great negative impact on the local industry as it deprives it of a reliable workforce (Kantor, 2012). Without st emming the flow of such work overseas, it would make it very difficult to reconstitute the local manufacturing. For those countries that receive these workers however, there is an enormous benefit to their manufacturing sector. The influx of capital from foreign companies spend in their country and the employment opportunities they provide for the workforce give a boost to the local economy. With go on investments coming in and plenty of jobs for their workforce, globalization has actually strengthened the local manufacturing of many foreign countries.Thom Hartman makes some interesting points in his Huffington Post article. Mr. Hartman describes how globalization is destroying the United States wealth through multinational corporations transferring all of their manufacturing overseas. He points out that in the late 1940s and 1950s manufacturing accounted for 28 percent of the United States total make domestic product. Even during the Reagan administration is was at 20 percent. H owever, today it is about ten percent of our gross domestic product (Hartmann, 2010). By shipping so much of our manufacturing overseas, the US is no longer self sufficient and able to create much wealth.By not generating wealth, but rather spending it on all of the foreign manufactured goods, there has been a slow degrading of the nations middle class. Of course, we as consumers bonk the idea of paying less for our goods, but it has to be realized that it comes at a cost. Many companies have cut jobs or reduced salaries, so those cheap goods are not such a covenant anymore. For this trend to stop and be reversed, nations such as the United States must rebuild their manufacturing base and become locally self-sufficient again (Hartmann, 2010). The idea would be for the countrys consumers to buy products manufactured by their own workers. While no answers or even ideas for reversing the problem globalization has caused were offered, it paints a clear picture that something needs to be done quickly.ReferencesKantor Paul, (2002). Cities in the International Marketplace The Political Economy of Urban exploitation in North America and Western Europe. Princeton University Press Hartmann, Thom, (2010). Globalization Is Killing The Globe Return to Local Economies. Retrieved from http//www.huffingtonpost.com/thom-hartmann/globalization-is-killing_b_454091.html Held, D. McGrew, A. (2012) Globalization Theory Approaches and Controversies. (2012), Cambridge. Davis, C. L.(2012). Why Adjudicate? Enforcing Trade Rules in the WTO. Princeton Princeton University Press. Retrieved January 30, 2015, from Project MUSE database. Obstfeld, Maurice (2000). The Global bully Market Benefactor or Menace? The Journal of Economic Perspectives , Vol. 12, No. 4., pp. 9-30.

Tuesday, April 9, 2019

From Strategy to Business Essay Example for Free

From Strategy to tune EssayStrategy scholars buzz off used the notion of the Business Model to refer to the logical system of the sloshed e how it operates and creates value for its stakeholders. On the surface, this notion get alongs to be similar to that of scheme. We present a conceptual mannequin to separate and relate the concepts of strategy and duty regulate a personal line of credit model, we need, is a reflection of the immobiles realized strategy. We find that in simple competitive situations there is a one-to-one subroutine between strategy and backup model, which reconciles it difficult to separate the two notions. We show that the concepts of strategy and line of descent model differ when there atomic number 18 important contingencies on which a puff up- excogitateed strategy must be based. Our framework also delivers a clear distinction between strategy and tactics, made possible because strategy and subscriber line model are contrary construct s. 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.IntroductionThe eld of strategy has evolved substantially in the old twenty-ve years. Firms have learned to analyze their competitive environment, dene their position, develop competitive and corporeal advantages, and understand founder how to sustain advantage in the face of competitive challenges and threats. Different approaches including industrial musical arrangement theory, the resource-based view, dynamic capabilities and support theory have helped academicians and practitioners understand the dynamics of competition and develop recommendations about how rms should dene their competitive and corporate strategies. But drivers such as globalization, deregulation and technological change (to mention only a few) are profoundly changing the competitive game.Scholars and practitioners agree that the fastest growing rms in this new environment appear to be those that have taken advantage ofthese structural changes to innovate in thei r task models so they gage compete distinguishablely. IBMs Global CEO Studies for 2006 and 2008, for example, show that top management in a broad range of industries are actively seeking guidance on how to innovate in their business models to improve their ability to both create and capture value.1 In addition to the business model foundation drivers noted above, much recent interest has come from two other environmental shifts. Advances in ICT have been a major force behind the recent 0024-6301/$ see front matter.interest in business model innovation. Many e-businesses are based on new business models e Shafer, Smith and Linder nd that eight of the twelve recent business model denitions they present relate to e-business.2 New strategies for the bottom of the benefit in emerging markets have also steered researchers and practitioners towards the systematic study of business models. Academicians working in this subject area agree that rms need to develop novel business models to be effective in such specic and challenging environments (see work by Thompson and MacMillan, as well as by Yunus et al. in this issue), and socially propel enterprises constitute a second important source of recent business model innovations.Advances in ICT and the demands of socially motivated enterprises constitute important sources of recent business model innovations. While it has become uncontroversial to argue that managers must have a good understanding of how business models work if their organizations are to thrive, the academic residential district has only offered early insights on the issue to date, and there is (as yet) no agreement as to the distinctive features of passe-partout business models. We believe this is partly because of a lack of a clear distinction between the notions of strategy, business models and tactics, and the purpose of this article is to contribute to this literature by presenting an integrative framework to distinguish and relate these te rzetto concepts. Put succinctly Business Model refers to the logic of the rm, the way it operates and how it creates value for its stakeholders and Strategy refers to the choice of business model through which the rm will compete in the marketplace time Tactics refers to the residual choices wanton to a rm by virtue of the business model it adopts to employ.To integrate these three concepts, we introduce a generic two-stage competitive process framework, as depicted in Figure 1. In the rst stage, rms choose a logic of value creation and value capture (i.e., choose their business model), and in the second, make tactical choices manoeuvre by their goals (which, in most cases, entail some form of stakeholder value maximization). Figure 1 indeed presents our organizing framework the object of strategy is the choice of business model, and the business model employed determines the tactics obtainable to the rm to compete against, or cooperate with, other rms in the marketplace.The a rticle is organized as follows. In the following section we dene and discuss the notion of business models and present a tool to represent them, while the following section considers the stage two choice in our framework, presenting and discussing the notion of tactics in affinity to that of business model. The following section then moves back to examine the rst e strategy e stage, later on which we revisit our process framework to integrate the three notions. We discuss the connection between strategy and business model, arguing that both notions can be clearly separated. A detailed example is developed in the following stage, followed by some concluding remarks.Business modelsAlthough the expression business model has gained in gibbousness only in the last decade, the term has been part of the business jargon for a long time, its origins pass back to the writings of Peter Drucker. Although (as Markides points out) there is no widely accepted denition, Magretta denes business models as stories that rationalize how enterprises work, and follows Drucker in dening a good business model as the one that provides answers to the following questions Who is the guest and what does the costumer value? and What is the underlying economic logic that explains how we can deliver value to customers at an conquer cost? While not formal, her implicit idea is that a business model is about how an organization earns money by addressing these two fundamental issues e how it identies and creates value for customers, and how it captures some of this value as its prot in the process.Amit and Zotts denition, in contrast, is less broad (as it focuses on e-businesses) but to a greater extent precise. Reviewing the contributions of several theories including virtual markets, Schumpeterian innovation, value chain analysis, the resource-based view of the rm, dynamic capabilities,transaction cost economics and strategical networks they point out that each contributes elements to the notion, but that none, by itself, explains business models completely. They analyze a sample of U.S. and European e-business models to highlight the drivers of value creation, and present the following integrative denition A business model depicts the content, structure, and governance of legal proceeding introductioned so as to create value through the exploitation of business opportunities.The content of a transaction refers to the goods or information exchanged, as well as to resources and capabilities required the structure refers to the parties that participate, their links, and the way they choose to operate, and governance refers to the way ows of information, resources and goods are controlled by the relevant parties, the legal form of organization, and the incentives to the participants.5 In this issue, they build on this denition to propose an activity system perspective for the design of business models, arguing that activity systems capture the affection of busi ness models and proposing two sets of aspects for designers to consider design elements (content, structure and governance) that describe the activity systems architecture, and design themes (novelty, lock-in, complementarities, and efciency) that describe its sources of value creation. The common thread across all of these approximations to the notion of business model is well captured by BadenFuller, MacMillan, Demil and Lecocq in their denition the logic of the rm, the way it operates and how it creates value for its stakeholders, and we adopt their denition as the starting point for our argument.To make progress toward understanding business models, we nd it helpful to use the analogy of a machine e by which we mean a mechanical device that transmits energy to perform tasks. (Of course, real organizations are different from machines in many important respects, but the comparison is helpful, especially to our thinking in contrasting the notions of strategy and business models.) A ny given machine has a finicky logic of operation (the way the different roles are assembled and relate to one another), and operates in a particular way to create value for its user. To be more concrete, different automobile designs have different specic logics of operation conventional engines operate sooner differently from hybrids, andstandard transmissions from automatics and create different value for their stakeholders, the drivers.Some may prefer a dainty gondola car that allows them to navigate congested city streets easily, while others may prefer a large SUV with a powerful engine to enjoy the countryside to the fullest. Automobiles are made of parts wheels, engines, seats, electronics, windshields, and the like. To assess how well a particular automobile works or to create a new one one must consider its components and how they relate to one another, just as, to better understand business models, one needs to understand their component parts and their relationshi ps. (We return to this analogy during the paper readers will gain more value from it if they understand the design and building of the car as representing strategy the car itself as the business model and the driving of the car as the available set of tactics.)

Monday, April 8, 2019

Semantics and Theories of Semantics Essay Example for Free

Semantics and Theories of Semantics EssaySemantics is the report card of qualityification in row. We whop that actors line is subroutined to express centers which passel be understood by contrarys. But piths exist in our minds and we corporation express what is in our minds by implicates of the verbalise and written forms of language (as well as by dint of gestures, action etc. ). The run short patterns of language argon studied at the level of phonology and the knowledgeableness of inter limitings and metres is studied at the level of morphology and syntax. These argon in turn organised in such a room that we can convey heart and soulful messages or receive and examine messages.How is language organised in baffle to be centreful? This is the question we ask and attempt to answer at the level of semantics. Semantics is that level of lingual analysis where essence is analysed. It is the near abstract level of lingual scientistic analysis, since we can non go steady or observe center as we can observe and record sounds. significance is related truly closely to the human capacity to think logically and to understand. So when we try to analyse nub, we are difficult to analyse our own capacity to think and understand, our own ability to create moment.Semantics concerns itself with giving a domineering account of the nature of gist (Leech). Difficulties in the Study of inwardness The problem of center is quite difficult, it is beca using up of its formidability that some linguists went on to the extent of excluding semantics from linguistics. A well-known structuralist made the astonishing statement that linguistic form of a languagedoes non intromit the semantics. The frame is abstract, it is a signaling system, and as soon as we study semantics we are no longer studying language provided the semantic system associated with language.The structralists were of the opinion that it is un slight the form of langu age which can be studied, and not the abstract functions. Both these are mis imaginationions. Recently a serious interest has been commencen in the various problems of semantics. And semantics is being studied not only by the linguists exactly similarly by philosophers, psychologists, scientists, anthropologists and sociologists. Scholars capture long puzzled over what expressions mean or what they represent, or how they are related to materiality. They select at times wondered whether linguistic communication are to a greater extent real than objects, and they hit striven to find the essential consequences of linguistic process.It may be interesting to ask whether playscripts do have essential marrow. For example, difficulties may arise in finding out the essential meaning of the watch devise dodge in water table, dining table, table amendment, and the table of 9. An abstract word a give care(p) good creates eve more(prenominal) problems. Nobody can exactly t ell what good really means, and how a speaker of position ever learns to use the word correctly. So the main difficulty is to account facts astir(predicate) essential meanings, doubled meanings, and word conditions.The connotating use of words adds further complications to any theorizations about meaning, elementicularly their uses in metaphor and poetical language. Above all is the question where does meaning exist in the speaker or the listener or in some(prenominal), or in the context or part ? Words are in familiar convenient building blocks to state meaning. But words have meanings by virtue of their employment in censures, most of which contain more than maven word. The meaning of a sentence, though largely capable on the meaning of its comp geniusnt words taken power point-by-itemly, is also requireed by prosodic features.The question whether word may be semantically described or in isolation, is more a matter of degree than of a simple answer yes or no. It is impossible to describe meaning adequately any former(a) mood debar by saying how words are typically utilize as part of longer sentences and how these sentences are used. The meanings of sentences and their comp one(a)nts are better dealt with in linguistics in turns of how they function than exclusively in terms of what they refer to. Words are tools they be line up important by the function they perform, the job they do, the way they are used in certain sentences.In addition to citation and function, scholars have also given import talkie to popular historical considerations, especially etymology, while studying word-meanings. Undobtedly the meaning of any word is casually the return of continuous changes in its antecedent meanings or uses, and in many cases it is the collective product of generations of cultural history. Dictionaries often deal with this sort of information if it is available, that in so ding they are passing beyond the bounds of synchronic statement to t he separate linguistic realm of historical explanation. diametrical answers have been given to the questions related to meaning. Psychologists have tried to assess the availability of certain kinds of responses to objects, to experiences, and to words themselves. Philosophers have proposed a variety of systems and theories to account for the data that interest them. Communication scientists have demonstrable information surmise so that they can use mathematical models to explain exactly what is predictable and what is not predictable when messages are channeled through various kinds of communication ne dickensrks.From approaches manage these a complex array of conceptions of meaning emerges. Lexical and grammatic Meaning When we talk about meaning, we are talking about the ability of human beings to understand one other when they speak. This ability is to some extent connected with grammar. No one could understand hat one the notwithstanding red green on bought tried Rameez. wh ile Rameez tried on the red had that bought the green one causes no difficulties. Yet in that location are numerous sentences which are perfectly grammatical, but meaningless. The most famous example is Chomskys sentence Colourless green ideas sleep furiously. comparable other examples are * The tree ate the elephant. * The pregnant bachelor gave birth to six girls tomorrow. * The table sneezed. In a sentence such as Did you understand the fundamentals of linguistics? A linguist has to take into account at least ii divers(prenominal) types of meaning lexical meaning and grammatical meaning. ripe words have some kind of intrinsic meaning. They refer to objects, actions and qualities that can be identified in the impertinent world, such as table, banana, sleep, eat, red. Such words are said to have lexical meaning. seat pop up words have little or no intrinsic meaning. They exist because of their grammatical function in the sentence. For example, and is used to join items, or specifys alternative, of sometimes indicates possession. These words have grammatical meaning. Grammatical meaning refers chiefly to the meaning of grammatical items as did, which, ed. Grammatical meaning may also cover notions such as subject and object, sentence types as interrogative, imperative etc. Because of its complexity, grammatical meaning is super difficult to study.As yet, no scheme of semantics has been able to handle it portly. But the study of lexical items is more manageable. What is Meaning? Philosophers have puzzled over this question for over 2000 years. Their thinking begins from the question of the sex actship amid words and the objects which words represent. For example, we may ask What is the meaning of the word cow? peerless answer would be that it refers to an animal who has certain properties, that distinguish it from other animals, who are called by other names.Where do these names come from and why does the word cow mean only that particular animal and none other? several(prenominal) thinkers say that there is no essential connection amid the word cow and the animal indicated by the word, but we have established this connection by convention and thus it continues to be so. Others would say that there are some essential attributes of that animal which we perceive in our minds and our concept of that animal is created for which we create a corresponding word. consort to this idea, there is an essential correspondence between the sounds of words and their meanings, e. g. , the word buzz reproduces the sound made by a bee. It is easy to understand this, but not so easy to understand how cow can mean a four-legged bovinethere is nothing in the sound of the word cow to indicate that, (Children often invent words that illustrate the correspondence between sound and meaning they may call a cow moo-moo because they hear it making that kind of sound. )The above idea that words in a language correspond to or stand for the actual objec ts in the world is imbed in Platos dialogue CratyIus. However, it applies only to some words and not to others, for example, words that do not refer to objects, e. g. love, hate. This fact gives rise to the view held by later thinkers, that the meaning of a word is not the object it refers to, but the concept of the object that exists in the mind. Moreover, as de Saussure pointed out, the parity between the word (signifier) and the concept (signified) is an arbitrary one, i.e. the word does not resemble the concept.Also, when we try to define the meaning of a word we do so by using other words. So, if We try to explain the meaning of table we need to use other words such as four, legs, and wood and these words in turn can be explained only by means of other words. In their book, The Meaning of Meaning, L. K. Ogden and I. A. Richards made an attempt to define meaning. When we use the word mean, we use it in variant ways. I mean to do this is a way of expressing our intention.The r ed signal means stop is a way of indicating what the red signal signifies. Since all language consists of signs, we can say that every word is a sign indicating somethingusually a sign indicates other signs. Ogden and Richards give the following list of some definitions of meaning. Meaning can be any of the following 1. An intrinsic property of some thing 2. Other words related to that word in a dictionary 3. The connotations of a word (that is discussed below)4. The thing to which the speaker of that word refers 5. The thing to which the speaker of that word should refer6. The thing to which the speaker of that word believes himself to be referring 7. The thing to which the meeter of that word believes is being referred to. These definitions refer to many different ways in which meaning is understood.One agreement for the range of definitions of meaning is that words (or signs) in a language are of different types. Some signs indicate meaning in a direct manner, e. g. an arrow (? ) indicates direction. Some signs are representative of the thing indicated, e. g. onomatopoeical wards such as buzz. tinkle ring even cough.slam, rustle have onomatopoeic qualities. Some signs do not have any resemblance to the thing they refer to, but as they stand for that thins, they are symbolic. Taking up some of the above definitions of meaning, we can discuss the different aspects of meaning o a word as follows (i) The logical or denotative meaning. This is the literal meaning of a word indicating the idea or concept to which it refers. concept is a minimal unit of meaning which could be called a sememe in the same way as the unit of sound is called a phoneme and is standardized the morpheme h Is structure and organisation.Just as the phoneme /b/ may be defined as a bilatial + vo folderold + plosive, the word man may be defined as a concept consisting of a structure of meaning human + male + adult expressed through the basic morphological unit m + ? + n. All the three qua lities are logical attributes of which the concept man is made. They are the minimal qualities that the concept must possess in order to be a distinguishable concept, e. g. if any of these changes, the concept too changes. So human + female + adult would not be the concept referred to by the word man, since it is a different concept.(ii) The connotative meaning. This is the additional meaning that a concept carries. It is defined as the communicative value an expression has by virtue of what it refers to over and above its purely abstract center (Leech, 1981). That is, apart from its logical or essential attributes, there is a further meaning attached to a word, which comes from its reference to other things in the real world. In the real world, such a word may be associated with some other features or attributes. For example, the logical or denotative meaning of the word woman is the concept, human + female + adult.To it may be added the concept of weaker sex or frailty. These w ere the connotations or values associated with the concept of woman. Thus connotative meaning consists of the attributes associated with a concept. As we know, these associations come into use over a period of time in a particular culture and can change with change in time. While denotative meaning remains stable since it defines the essential attributes of a concept, connotative meaning changes as it is based on associations made to the concept these associations may change.(iii) The societal meaning This is the meaning that a word or a phrase conveys about the circumstances of its use. That is, the meaning of a word is understood according to the different style and situation in which the word is used, e. g. though the words domicile, antechamber, abode, home all refer to the same thing (i. e. their denotative meaning is the same), to individually one word belongs to a particular situation of usedomicile is used in an official context, residence in a formal context, abode is a poetic use and home is an ordinary use. Where one is used, the other is not taken as appropriate.Social meaning derives from an awareness of the style in which something is written and spoken and of the dealinghip between speaker and tenderwhether that relationship is formal, official, casual, polite, or friendly. (iv) The thematic meaning This is the meaning which is communicated by the way in which a speaker or writer organises the message in terms of ordering, direction and emphasis. It is often felt, for example, that an active sentence has a different meaning from its passive equivalent although its conceptual meaning seems to be the same. In the sentences Mrs. smith donated the frontmost prize The first prize was donated by Mrs. Smith the thematic meaning is different. In the first sentence it appears that we know who Mrs. Smith is, so the new information on which the emphasis is laid is the first prize. In the aid sentence, however, the emphasis is laid on Mrs. Smith. I t is sometimes difficult to demarcate all these categories of meaning. For example, it may be difficult to distinguish between conceptual meaning and social meaning in the following sentences He stuck the key in his pocket. He put the key in his pocket.We could argue that these two sentences are conceptually alike, but different in social meaningthe first one adopts a casual or informal style, the second adopts a sluggish style. However, we could also say that the two verbs are conceptually different stuck meaning put carelessly and readily, which is a more precise meaning than simply put. Of course, it is a matter of choice which word the speaker wishes to use, a more precise one or a neutral one. Some foothold and Distinctions in Semantics (a) Lexical and grammatical meaning Lexical or word meaning is the meaning of individual lexical items.These are of two types the open line lexical items, such as nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs, and the close class items such as prepos itions, conjunctions and deter-miners. The open class items have independent meanings, which are defined in the dictionary. The shut class items have meaning only in relation to other words in a sentence this is called grammatical meaning, which can be understood from a consideration of the structure of the sentence and its relation with other sentences. For example, in the sentence The tiger killed the elephant, there are three open class items tiger, kill, elephant. let out of these, two are nouns and one is a verb. There is one closed class tern thewhich occurs sooner each noun. It has no independent reference of its own and can have meaning only when placed before the nouns. This distinction may help in understanding ambiguity. Thus, if there is ambiguity in a sentence, this can be a lexical ambiguity or a grammatical ambiguity. For example, in the sentence I saw him near the bank, there is lexical ambiguity, since the item bank can mean (a) the financial institution or (b) th e bank of a river.However, in the case of The parents of the bride and the groom were waiting there is grammatical ambiguity as the sentence structure can be interpreted in two ways (a) the two separate noun phrases being the parents of the bride, and the groom or (b) the single noun phrase the parents within which there is the prepositional phrase of the bride and the groom containing two nouns. The first type of coordination gives us the meaning that the people who were waiting were the parents of the bride and the groom himself.The second type of coordination gives us the meaning that the people who were waiting were the parents of the bride and the parents of the groom. The meaning of a sentence is the product of both lexical and grammatical meanings. This becomes clear if we compare a pair of sentences such as the following The tag bit the immune carrier. The postman bit the dog. These two sentences differ in meaning. But the difference in meaning is not due to the difference in the meaning of the lexical items postman and dog, but in the grammatical relationship between the two.In one casedog is the subject and postman is the object, in the other case the grammatical roles are reversed. There is also the relationship of these nouns with the verb bit. In the first sentence, the action is performed by the dog, which conforms to our knowledge about dogs, but in the second sentence, the action is performed by the postman which does not match with our knowledge about what postmen do, so there is a sense of incongruity about the second sentence. Only in some exceptional circumstance could we expect it to be comprehensible. (b) Sense and Reference.It has been explained in front that signs refer to concepts as well as to other signs. A sign is a symbol that indicates a concept. This concept is the reference, which refers in turn to some object in the real world, called the referent. The relationship between linguistic items (e. g. words, sentences) and the no n-linguistic world of experience is a relationship of reference. It can be understood by the following diagram given by Ogden and Richards The objects in the real world are referents, the concept which we have of them in our minds is the reference and the symbol we use to refer to them is the word, or linguistic item.As we have seen, we can explain the meaning of a linguistic item by using other words. The relation of a word with another word is a sense-relation. Therefore, sense is the complex system of relationships that holds between the linguistic items themselves. Sense is concerned with the intra-linguistic relations, i. e. relations within the system of the language itself, such as similarity between words, opposition, inclusion, and pre-supposition. Sense relations include homonymy, polysemy, synonymy and antonymy.Homonyms are different items (lexical items or structure words) with the same phonetic form. They differ only in meaning, e. g. the item ear meaning organ of hear ing is a homonym of the item ear meaning a stem of wheat. Homonymy may be classified as (a) Homography a phenomenon of two or more words having the same spellings but different pronunciation or meaning, e. g. entice /led/ = metal lead/lid/ = verb. (b) Homophony a phenomenon of two or more words having the same pronunciation but different meanings or spellings, e. g.sea/see, knew/new, some/ sum, sunlight/ male kid.It is difficult to distinguish between homonymy and polysemy as in polysemy, the same lexical item has different meanings, e. g. bank*, face* Two lexical items can be considered as synonyms if they have the same denotative, connotative and social meaning and can replace each other in all contexts of occurrence. Only then can they be absolutely synonymous. For example, radio and wireless co-existed for a while as synonyms, being used as alternatives by speakers of British English. But now, wireless is not used frequently.What we consider as synonyms in a language are usua lly near-equivalent items, or descriptive items. For example, lavatory, toilet, WC, washroom are descriptive or near-equivalent synonyms in English. Antonyms are lexical items which are different both in form as well as meaning. An antonym of a lexical item conveys the opposite sense, e. g. single-married, good-bad. But this gives rise to questions of what is an opposite or contrasted meaning. For example, the opposite of woman could be man or girl since the denotation of both is different from that of woman.Thus we need to modify our definition of antonymy. We can say that some items are less compatible than other items. There can be parsimony of contrast or remoteness of contrast. Thus man or girl is contrasted to woman but less contrasted than woman and tree. In this sense, woman and man are related, just as girl and son are related, in spite of being contrasted. Other meaning-relations of a similar nature are female horse/stallion, cow/bull, ram/ewe etc. , all based on gender distinctions. Another set of meaning relations can be of age and family relationship father/son, uncle/nephew, aunt/ niece.In this, too, there are differences in the structures of different languages. In Urdu, for instance, gender distinction or contrast may be label by a change in the ending of the noun (e. g. /gho? a/gho? i/ for horse and mare respectively) or, in some cases, by a different word (e. g. /gae/bael/ for cow and bull respectively). In English, there are usually different words to mark contrast in gender except in a few cases (e. g. elephant, giraffe). The evolution of a complex system of sense relations is dependent on the way in which the objects of the world and the environment are perceived andconceptualized by the people who practice that language. For example, Eskimos have many words related in meaning to snow because snow in different forms is a part o their environment. In English, there are only two snow and ice, while in Urdu there is only one baraf. This r eflects the importance that a particular object or phenomena may have for a certain community. Another kind of sense-relationship is hyponymy. Hyponymy is the relation that holds between a more customary and more specific lexical item. For example, flower is a more general item, and uprise, lily, etc.are more specific. The more specific item is considered a hyponym of the more general item lift is a hyponym of flower. The specific item includes the meaning of the general. When we say rose, the meaning of flower is included in its meaning. Rose is also hyponymous to plant and living thing as these are the most general categories. The combination of words to produce a single unit of meaning is also a part of sense-relations in a language. Compounds are made, which often do not mean the same as the separate words which they consist of.Thus, while black bird can be understood to mean a bird which is black, strawberry cannot be understood to mean a berry made of straw. Similarly, fight er can be considered to be a noun made up of the morphemes fight + er, but hammer cannot be considered as made up of ham + er. Phrasal verbs and idioms are also a case of such sense relations. The verbs face up to, see through, look upon, etc. have a composite meaning. Collocations such as slow smoking compartment and good singer are not mere combinations of toilsome + smoker meaning the smoker is heavy or good + singer.They mean one who smokes heavily or one who sings well. The collocated unit has a meaning which is a composite of both that is why we cannot say good smoker and heavy singer. All these sense-relations are peculiar to a language and every language develops its own system of sense-relations. (c) Sentence-meaning and Utterance-meaning A distinction may be drawn between, sentence-meaning and utterance-meaning. This is because a speaker may use a sentence to mean something other than what is normally stated in the sentence itself.As discussed earlier, sentence meaning i s a combination of lexical and grammatical meaning. In addition to this, intonation may also affect sentence meaning. For example, I dont like COFFEE means that the speaker does not like coffee, but may like some other drink I dont like coffee means that the speaker doesnt like coffee but someone else does. Speakers can use intonation to change the emphasis and thus the meaning of the sentence. Further, a sentence may be used by a speaker to perform some act, such as the act of questioning, warning, promising, threatening, etc.Thus, a sentence such as Its cold in here could be used as an order or request to someone to shut the window, even though it is a declarative sentence. Similarly, an interrogative sentence such as Could you shut the door? can be used to perform the act of requesting or commanding rather than that of questioning (The speaker is not asking whether the hearer is able to shut the door, but is requesting the hearer to in truth do the action). Usually such use of s entences is so conventional that we do not stop to think of the literal sentence meaning, we respond to the speakers act of requesting, etc., which is the utterance meaning.This is the meaning that a sentence has when a speaker utters it to perform some act, in particular appropriate circumstances. (d) synthesis and Presupposition One sentence may entail other sentencethat is, include the meaning of other sentence in its meaning, just as hyponymy includes the meaning of other word. For example, the sentence The earth goes round the sun entails (includes) the meaning The earth moves. A sentence may presuppose other sentences, e. g. the sentence Shamims son is named Rahat presupposes the sentence Shamim has a son.Presupposition is the previously known meaning which is implied in the sentence. While entailment is a logical meaning inherent in the sentence, presupposition may depend on the knowledge of the facts, shared by the speaker and the hearer. Theories of Semantics a) Traditiona l Approach We have noted earlier that meaning was eternally a profound concern with thinkers. This has been the root of much divergent opinions and definitions of meaning. However, there was little doubt that there are two sides of the issue symbolic realization, whether in utterance or in writing, and the thing symbolised.Platos Cratylus clearly lays down that word is the signifier (in the language) and the signified is the object (in the world). Words are, therefore, names, labels that denote or stand for. Initially, a child learns to know his world, and his language in this manner. He is pointed out the objects and people names are given to them, and in his mind link or association between the names and the external world is established. Children have always been taught their language in this manner. This is also perhaps the way the earliest thinkers tried to understand the world through linguistic medium.That could be the reason why William Labov was prompted to say, In many ways, the child is a perfect historiographer of the language. This simple view of the relationship between name and things is diagrammatically shown below. However, this is an extremely simplistic theory and it would be wrong to say the child simply learns the names of things. Gradually, and simultaneously, he learns to handle the complexities of experience along with the complexities of language. b) Analytical/Referential Approach Between the symbol and the object/thing there is an intervene phenomenon which is recognized as the mediation of concepts of the mind.De Saussure and I. A. Richards and C. K. Ogden are the best-known scholars to hold this view. The Swiss linguist de Saussure postulated the link, a psychological associative bond, between the sound image and the concept. Ogden and Richards viewed this in the shape of a triangle. The linguistic symbol or image, realized as a word or sentence and the referent, the external entities are mediated by thought or reference. There is no direct relation between the sign and the object but our interpretation of any sign is our psychological reaction to it (Ogden).The meaning of a word in the most important sense of the word is that part of a total reaction to the word which constitutes the thought about what the word is intended for and what it symbolizes. Thus thought (the reference) constitutes the symbolic or referential meaning of a word (YevgenyBasin 32-33). Linguistics, in the opinion of de Saussure, operates on the borderland where the elements of sound and thought coincide their combination produces a form, not a substance. When we see an object, a bird, for example, we call it referent its recollection is its image. It is through this image that the sign is linked to the referent.The symbol is manifested in the phonetic form and the reference is the information the hearer is conveyed. This process thus established, makes meaning a reciprocatory and reversible relation between name and sense. One can live with the name and arrive at the meaning or one can start with the meaning and arrive at the name/s. The referential or analytical approach, as it is also known, tries to keep off the usable domain of language, and seeks rather to understand meaning by identifying its primary components. This approach is the descendant of the antique philosophical world-view, and carries its limitations.It ignores the relatively different positions at which the speaker and the hearer are situated. Their positions make a reciprocal and reversible relationship between name and sense (Ullmann). This approach also overlooks other psychological, non-physical processes which donot depend upon the linguistic symbol, the reception of the sound waves for recognising the meaning of the object/thing. A word usually has duplex meaning and is also associated with other words. Which of the meanings will be received depends upon the situations. (c) Functional Approach In the year 1953 L.Wittgensteins spurt Philosophical Investigation was published. Around this time Malinowski and J. R. Firth were working to formulate the operational character of scientific concepts like length, time or energy they tried to grasp the meaning of a word by observing the uses to which it is put instead of what is said about it. They approached the problem by including all that is relevant in establishing the meaning the hearers, their commonly shared knowledge and information, external objecs, and events, the contexts of earlier exchange and so on, and not by excluding them.This approach can directly be linked to the concept of the Context of situation being developed by the London group which viewed social processes as significant factor in explaining a lecture event. While the referential approach took an idealist position, dealing, as someone said, with meaning in language, the functional theory or the operational theory took a realistic stand, taking speech as it actually occurred. Words are considered tools and whole utterances are considered.Meaning is thus seen to involve a set of multiple and various relations between the utterances and its segments and the relevant components of environment (Robins). In placing special emphasis on language as a form of behaviour as something that we perform, the functional approach shares a lot with general linguistics. Language is a form a behaviour which is functional, something that we do with a purpose, or more often, in fact, with more than one purpose.It is viewed as a form of functional behaviour which is related to the social situation in which it occurs as something that we do purposefully in a particular social setting (Margaret Berry). The systemic organization of a language is sought to be understood through its relations with the social situations of language. According to this theory, meaning is classified into two broad categories, Contextual Meaning and Formal Meaning. Contextual meaning relates a formal item or p attern to an element of situation.